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18 - Environmental, social and spatial determinants of urban arboreal character in Auckland, New Zealand
- Edited by Mark J. McDonnell, Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne and University of Melbourne, Amy K. Hahs, Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne and University of Melbourne, Jürgen H. Breuste, Universität Salzburg
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- Book:
- Ecology of Cities and Towns
- Published online:
- 04 March 2010
- Print publication:
- 25 June 2009, pp 287-307
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Summary
Introduction
To date, nearly all vegetation studies in New Zealand have been carried out in pristine to semi-natural systems. Thus, urban ecology in New Zealand is in its infancy as compared with the centuries of observation, documentation and mapping of vegetation, biotopes and natural history in urban areas of Europe (Gilbert,1989; Breuste et al., 1998; Sukopp, 2002; Breuste, Chapter 21; Florgård, Chapter 22; Wittig, Chapter 30) and 30-plus years of study in North America (Zipperer and Guntenspergen, Chapter 17). The relatively few studies of urban vegetation in the New World have typically focused on remnant natural systems enveloped by residential and commercial dwellings (Airola and Buchholz, 1984; Rudnicky and McDonnell, 1989; Kuschel, 1990; Molloy, 1995; McDonnell et al., 1997). Accordingly, there is a distinction to be made between the ecology of remnant primary ecosystems (those that retain at least some thread of biological and pedological continuity with the primeval system) and the ecology of synthetic or spontaneous recombinant systems on anthropogenic substrates (i.e. most vegetation in cities and towns). In New Zealand, we know quite a lot about natural forest, wetland and grassland vegetation, whether in National Parks or as remnants in cities (Wardle, 1991); but little about recombinant communities of cultural landscapes (that is, human-inhabited landscapes in the sense of Nassauer (1997)). They have been traditionally shunned in New Zealand because they almost totally comprise exotic, planted and/or weedy species.
26 - Bladder cancer
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- By Heather-Jane Au, Department of Medicine, University Avenue, Scott North, Department of Medicine, University Avenue, Canada
- Edited by Michael J. Fisch, University of Texas, M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Eduardo Bruera, University of Texas, M. D. Anderson Cancer Center
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- Book:
- Handbook of Advanced Cancer Care
- Published online:
- 04 August 2010
- Print publication:
- 27 March 2003, pp 223-228
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Summary
Introduction
Bladder cancer occurs in developed and less-developed countries, with 60% of the world cases occurring in more developed countries. The estimated world incidence was 360 000 and mortality 132 000 for the year 2000. Bladder cancer accounts for 2% of cancer deaths worldwide. The incidence of this disease has been increasing over the last several years while the mortality rate has been decreasing. Bladder cancer is the fourth most common cancer in men and the eighth most common cancer in women in the US, with a 3:1 ratio in men versus women worldwide.,
Transitional cell carcinoma accounts for 90% of bladder cancers diagnosed in developed countries. Known risk factors for the development of transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder include cigarette smoking and occupational exposure to various agents, including aromatic amines used in textile, rubber, and cable industries. Squamous cell carcinoma accounts for 3% of bladder cancers diagnosed in the US compared with 75% in the Middle East and parts of Africa where schistosomiasis is endemic. Other risk factors for squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder may include chronic bladder infections and calculi. Much less common bladder cancer histologies include adenocarcinoma, small cell carcinoma, lymphoma, and melanoma.
Patterns of presentation and progression
In the US, the median age at diagnosis is 65 years. It is rarely diagnosed before the age of 40, and 80–90% of patients present with hematuria, which is often intermittent. Patients over 40 presenting with hematuria should be investigated.